Mythology

concerned in creation. But in Babylonia the myth of Creation assumed central importance owing to the fact that it became associated with the great Babylonian New Year, or Akitu, Festival and was embodied in liturgical form in the poem or chant known from its opening words as Enuma elish, ‘When on high’. In this form of the myth the Babylonian god Marduk plays the principal part. It is he who conquers Tiamat, secures the tablets of destiny, and performs the various creative acts described in the poem. The seven tablets containing the myth were first discovered by the British excavation of Nineveh, and parts of them were translated and published by George Smith in 1876. Over-hasty enthusiasts immediately made comparisons between the seven days of Creation in the Priestly account in Gen. 1 and the seven tablets of the Babylonian myth, and advanced the theory that the Hebrew form of the Creation story was entirely dependent on the Babylonian. We shall return to this point when we come to deal with Hebrew mythology. Since then, further portions of the tablets have been discovered and some of the gaps in the first discovery have been filled. Most modern scholars assign the date of the composition to the beginning of the second millennium B.C., the period when Babylon was becoming the leading city of the Akkadian city states. We know from such portions of the Babylonian New Year liturgy as remain to us that at two points of the New Year Festival ritual the priests recited the Enuma elish with the force of a magical incantation. The German excavation of the site of Ashur, the old capital of the Assyrian empire, brought to light the Assyrian version of the Enuma elish, in which the name of the Babylonian god Marduk was replaced by the name of Ashur the chief god of Assyria. The outline of the myth in its Babylonian form is as follows: Tablet one begins with a description of the primeval condition of the universe when nothing existed except Apsu, the sweet-water ocean, and Tiamat, the salt water ocean. From the union of these two the gods were brought into existence. The first pair, Lahmu and Lahamu (interpreted by Jacobsen [11] as the silt deposited at the junction of the sea and the rivers) gave birth to Anshar and Kishar, interpreted by the same scholar as the circular horizons of sky and earth. Anshar and Kishar in turn give birth to Anu, the sky, and Nudimmud or Ea, the earth - and water-god. Here a break with the Sumerian tradition appears. Enlil, whose activities we have already seen in the Sumerian mythology, is replaced by Ea, or Enki, who appears in Babylonian mythology as the god of wisdom and the source of all magic. Ea then begets Marduk, the hero of the Babylonian form of the myth. But before the birth of Marduk we have an account of the first conflict between the primeval gods and those whom they have begotten. Tiamat and Apsu are disturbed by the noise of the younger gods and take counsel with Mummu, Apsu’s vizier, how to destroy them. Tiamat is reluctant to destroy her offspring, but Apsu and Mummu devise a plan. Their intention is disclosed to the gods who are alarmed, but Ea, the all-wise, devises a counter-scheme; he casts a spell of sleep upon Apsu, slays him, binds Mummu and puts a cord in his nose. He then builds his sacred chamber and calls it ‘Apsu’, and rests in profound peace. In this chamber the birth of Marduk takes place, and a description of his beauty and tremendous strength follows. The first tablet ends with a description of the preparation for a renewed conflict between the primeval gods and the younger gods. Tiamat is reproached by her other children for having remained quiescent when Apsu was destroyed, and they succeed

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have immolated the wives and court attendants on the occasion of the death of a king; the text appears to imply that Gilgamesh has died, and ends with a paean in his praise. Here we may leave the subject of Sumerian mythology, and pass on to the Akkadian, that is, the Assyro-Babylonian mythology, much of which is, as we have already pointed out, based on the Sumerian material. It must be borne in mind that the Semitic conquerors of the Sumerians, while they adopted the Sumerian cuneiform script, adapted it to express a Semitic language (Akkadian) totally unlike Sumerian. Hence many of ‘the gods of the Sumerian pantheon adopted by the Babylonians and Assyrians appear under Semitic names in the Akkadian mythology. Inanna becomes Ishtar, Utu becomes Shamash, the moon-god Nanna becomes Sin, although many of the names of the temples and ritual terms retain their Sumerian forms. Many of the prayers and incantations continued to be recited by the priests in Sumerian, which remained the language of religious ritual and liturgy long after it had ceased to be a spoken language, much as Latin continued, and still continues, to be the liturgical language of the Church. The Akkadian forms of Sumerian myths thus reflect both the altered political conditions of Semitic domination, and the different mentality of the Semitic conquerors. Babylonian Myths We have, for convenience, classed the myths described in this section as Babylonian, although many of the texts which contain them were written by Assyrian scribes and come from the library of the Assyrian king, Ashurbanipal. Professor Sidney. Smith has said:’ ‘It is certain that the Assyrian scribes were engaged in transforming the literature they borrowed from Babylonia from the style of the First Dynasty of Babylon to the form in which we find it in Ashurbanipal’s library.’ All the gods of Assyria were also worshipped in Babylonia, and the Assyrian religious festivals were celebrated at the same times and in the same way as those of Babylonia. There are a few myths or legends peculiar to Assyria, such as the legend of Sargon of Agade, which has a very curious history. But in the main the myths which we shall describe are of Babylonian provenance, and represent the Semitic transformation of earlier Sumerian material. We shall begin by giving the Babylonian form of the three basic or type myths already described in the previous section: The Descent of Ishtar into the Nether World As in the Sumerian version, so also in the Babylonian form of the myth, no reason is given for Ishtar’s descent into the nether world; but at the end of the poem, after Ishtar has been released, Tammuz is introduced as Ishtar’s brother and lover, without any explanation of how he comes to be in the nether world. The lines that follow seem to imply the return of Tammuz to the land of the living with rejoicings. It is only from the Tammuz liturgies that we learn of the imprisonment of Tammuz in the underworld, and of the desolation caused by his absence from the land of the living. In the Babylonian version of the descent of Ishtar to the land of no return, we have a description of the failure of all sexual fertility caused by her absence: ‘the bull springs not upon the cow; the ass impregnates not the jenny; in the street the man impregnates not the maiden.’ e It is with these words that Papsukkal, the vizier of the great gods, announces the non-return of Ishtar and its consequences. The description of the descent of the goddess follows the Sumerian version in its main outlines; but there are some

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incestuous relation between father and daughter finds an echo in the relation between Saturn and Vesta in Greek mythology, as Milton’s lines remind us: Thee bright-haired Vesta, long of yore To solitary Saturn bore; His daughter she, in Saturn’s reign Such mixture was not deemed a stain. But we have no clue to the interpretation of the details of the myth. Professor Thorkild Jacobsen has said with regard to it, ‘This myth endeavours to trace a causal unity among many disparate phenomena, but it is a unity causal in the mythopoeic sense only. When plants are seen as born of soil and water, we can still follow, although with reservations. Towards the end of the myth, however, the deities born that Enki may be healed have no intrinsic connexion either with soil who bears them, or with water.’ [5] The myth does at least show that although the Babylonians borrowed much from Sumerian mythology, the Semitic mind found it difficult to accept many elements in that mythology. The Myth of Dumuzi and Enkimdu Another Sumerian myth is of interest as finding an echo in the Hebrew story of Cain and Abel, but without its tragic ending. It deals with the age-long rivalry between the agricultural and the pastoral modes of life. In the myth Inanna, or Ishtar, is about to choose a husband. The choice lies between the shepherd-god Dumuzi, or Tammuz, and the farmer-god Enkimdu. Inanna’s brother Utu, the sun-god, favours Dumuzi, but Inanna herself prefers Enkimdu. Dumuzi urges his suit and claims to have everything that Enkimdu can offer and more. Enkimdu endeavours to appease Dumuzi and offers him all kinds of gifts, but Dumuzi remains determined to have Inanna, and apparently succeeds in his intention, since, as we have already seen, various myths represent Dumuzi as the husband of Inanna. Kramer’s rendering of the conclusion of the poem is worth quoting. Enkimdu speaks: ‘Thou, O shepherd, why dost thou start a quarrel? O Shepherd Dumuzi, why dost thou start a quarrel? Me with thee, O shepherd, me with thee why does thou compare? Let thy sheep eat the grass of the earth, In my meadowland let thy sheep pasture, In the fields of Zabalam let them eat grass, Let all thy folds drink the water of my river Unun.’ Dumuzi speaks: ‘I, the shepherd, at my marriage do not enter, O farmer, as my friend, O farmer, Enkimdu, as my friend, O farmer, as my friend, do not enter: Enkimdu replies: ‘Wheat I shall bring thee, beans I shall bring thee, Beans of . . . I shall bring thee,

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The maid Inanna (and) whatever is pleasing to thee, The maid Inanna . . . I shall bring thee.” [6] When we come to deal with Hebrew myths we shall see that various layers of older myths underlie the present form of the Cain and Abel myth, and it is possible that Dumuzi’s rejection of all the farmer-god’s gifts underlies Yahweh’s rejection of Cain’s agricultural offerings. Gilgamesh Myths An important figure in Akkadian mythology is the hero Gilgamesh, who is, according to the Gilgamesh Epic, two parts god, and one part man. But he also belongs to Sumerian mythology, and three Sumerian texts included in The Ancient Near Eastern Texts in Kramer’s translation contain accounts of episodes in which Gilgamesh is concerned. It should be remarked here that in the Sumerian king-lists Gilgamesh is the fifth king of the dynasty of Erech, the second dynasty after the Flood according to Sumerian reckoning. The first of these texts, entitled ‘Gilgamesh and Agga’ in The Ancient Near Eastern Texts, reflects the struggles for domination between the early Sumerian city-states. It contains the story of the conflict between Gilgamesh of Erech and Agga the last king of the dynasty of Kish, the first dynasty after the Flood. Much of the poem is obscure, but it seems to represent a demand by Agga for the submission of Erech, the resistance of the demand by Gilgamesh, the siege of Erech by Agga, and a final reconciliation of the two kings. There is no intervention of the gods, hence the text is not strictly speaking part of Sumerian mythology, and is only included here because of its evidence that the figure of Gilgamesh is derived from Sumerian sources. The second text, entitled in The Ancient Near Eastern Texts ‘Gilgamesh and the Land of the Living’, clearly contains mythical material which was utilized in the composition of the Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh, with which we shall deal later. Its theme is the search for immortality, a motive which underlies much of Near Eastern mythology. As the substance of this text has been taken up and more fully developed in the Akkadian Epic mentioned above, it need only be briefly summarized here. Oppressed by the all-pervasiveness of death, and conscious that he himself cannot escape it, Gilgamesh determines to find the Land of the Living. His friend and servant Enkidu, of whom we shall learn more in the Akkadian Epic, advises him to consult the sun-god Utu about his adventure. Utu at first warns him of its dangers, but afterwards helps him to cross the seven mountains and reach his goal which appears to be the cedar mountain where the giant Huwawa dwells. Gilgamesh and Enkidu, after some obscure preliminaries, cut off the giant’s head. Here the tablet breaks off. The importance of the text lies chiefly in the fact that it shows the Sumerian preoccupation with the problem of death, and that it is the source from which the Babylonians drew the materials for the complete Gilgamesh story given in the Akkadian form of the myth. The third Gilgamesh fragment, entitled in The Ancient Near Eastern Texts ‘The Death of Gilgamesh’, further develops the theme of death and the quest for immortality. Gilgamesh appears to have had a dream which is interpreted to him by the god Enlil as meaning that the gods have denied immortality to mankind, but that Gilgamesh has been granted fame, wealth, and success in battle. The second part of the poem appears to describe a funerary ritual, which may, as Kramer suggests, throw light on the significance of the death-chamber discovered by Sir Leonard Woolley in his excavation of Ur. The Sumerians may, like the ancient Egyptians,

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difficulties; but this, too, may be left until we have discussed the fuller form of the Flood myth, and its connexion with the Gilgamesh myth. In addition to the three basic myths described above, there are a number of Sumerian myths which must be included in our account of what is perhaps, the oldest mythology in the world with the possible exception of the Egyptian one. It must also be borne in mind that our knowledge of Sumerian is still far from complete, and the meaning of many words in that language is uncertain; moreover, many of the tablets are in a fragmentary condition, and often extremely hard to read. Hence, while the account given here of the Sumerian myths rests upon the best contemporary scholarship, further research and fresh discoveries may well make changes and additions necessary in the future. The Myth of Enki and Ninhursag A myth which has no counterpart in Akkadian mythology, so far as our knowledge goes at present, and one which Kramer has described as one of the best preserved of the Sumerian myths, is the myth of Enki and Ninhursag. In The Ancient Near Eastern Texts it is described as a Paradise myth, and some of its features may underlie the Hebrew account of Paradise. The outline of the myth is as follows: the scene is laid in Dilmun, described both as a land and a city, and identified by modern scholars with Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. The protagonists are the god Enki, the water-god, and the goddess Ninhursag, the earth-mother. The myth begins with a description of Dilmun as a clean, pure, bright place, where the animals do not harm one another, and where there is no sickness nor old age. The only thing wanting in Dilmun is sweet water, and this is provided by Enki at Ninhursag’s request. The Myth then goes on to relate that from the union of Enki and Ninhursag is born Ninsar, or Ninmu, the goddess of plants. Ninhursag’s period of gestation is described as lasting nine days, a day for each month of human gestation. Enki then impregnates his daughter Ninsar, who gives birth to the goddess Ninkurra, and she, in turn, being impregnated by Enki gives birth to the goddess Uttu, also described as the goddess of plants. Her name must not be confused with the name of the sun god Utu. Then Ninhursag warns Uttu against Enki, and gives her certain advice as to how she is to deal with Enki’s approaches. Following the advice Uttu demands a present of cucumbers, apples, and grapes, possibly as wedding gifts. Enki brings the required gifts and is -joyfully received by Uttu; as the result of their union eight plants spring forth, but, before Ninhursag can assign them their names and qualities, Enki eats all the plants. Ninhursag, infuriated, curses Enki with a terrible curse and departs. The gods are dismayed, and Enki is stricken with sickness in eight different parts of his body. Through the craft of the fox, Ninhursag is induced to return and cure Enki of his sickness. She does this by creating in succession eight deities, one for each part of Enki’s body in which the sickness is located. It has been pointed out that there is a punning relation between the name of each deity and the particular part of Enki’s body affected. The closing lines of the poem seem to suggest that the eight deities are regarded as Enki’s children, and their destiny is fixed by Ninhursag. This curious myth does not seem to have any counterpart in the field of Near Eastern mythology, except in so far as the concept of a golden age in the past is wide-spread, and the

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hundred items which constitute the elements of Sumerian civilization. Inanna receives the gifts with joy, and loads them on her bark, ‘the boat of heaven’, and sets sail for Erech. When Enki recovers from his orgy he realizes that the me are missing from their accustomed place. The mention of a place in which the me are kept suggests that they are in the form of tablets. On discovering his loss Enki sends his messenger Isimud with instructions to recover them. Seven times he attempts to do so, but each time he is foiled by Ninshubur, Inanna’s vizier, of whom we have already heard. So the goddess brings to Erech the blessings of civilization. It will be noted that the various myths to which we have referred reflect the rivalry which existed between the various city-states of Sumer. The first items on the list of the me which Inanna obtained from Enki are those referring to lordship the crown, throne, and sceptre are mentioned, from which we may infer that the struggle for the hegemony of Sumer is one of the motives underlying these myths of the organization of the universe. The Creation of Man. We have already seen that the myth of Lahar and Ashnan ended up with the creation of man for the service of the gods. Another myth, the text of which is difficult and broken, describes the way in which man was created. Although the Sumerian myth differs considerably from the account given in the Babylonian Epic of Creation, both versions agree in the object for which man was created, namely, for the service of the gods, to till the ground and free the gods from having to work for their living. In the Sumerian myth the gods complain that they cannot get their food. Enki, the god of wisdom, to whom the gods generally resort in time of need, is asleep; but Nammu, the primeval ocean, the mother of the gods, arouses him from sleep. By Enki’s instructions Nammu and Ninmah, the goddess of birth, assisted by deities, whom Kramer’s rendering describes as ‘good and princely fashioners’, mix clay which is ‘over the abyss’ and bring man into existence. The tablet is broken and the text is difficult and obscure, but some curious details emerge. Enki gives a banquet to the gods to celebrate the creation of man. Enki and Ninmah drink much wine and become drunk. Ninmah takes some of the clay which is ‘over the abyss’ and creates six different kinds of human beings whose nature is obscure, except in the case of the last two, which are the barren woman and the eunuch. Enki decrees the fate of the eunuch as destined to stand before the king. The myth goes on to describe a further act of creation by Enki. He creates a human being who is feeble in mind and body, and then asks Ninmah to do something to improve the condition of the miserable creature, but she is unable to do anything and curses Enki for making such a creature. One of the Hebrew words for man is enosh, a root one meaning of which is ‘weak’ or ’sick’. This aspect of humanity is often emphasized in Hebrew poetry, and this curious element in the Sumerian myth may possibly underlie the Hebrew representation of man as failing to measure up to the place in the universe which the divine purpose had intended for him. We shall see later that important differences appear in the Babylonian myth of Creation which are not without significance in their influence on the Hebrew account of how man was created. The Myth of the Flood

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The third of the basic myths is the wide-spread myth of the Deluge. Usener’s well-known work has shown that the myth of the destruction of mankind by a flood is to be found in some form or other in every part of the world, as we have already seen. The central motive of the myth is that the gods decide to destroy mankind; the means by which they do so is secondary, and we shall see that water is not the only means used. It has long been known that the Biblical story of the Deluge was based on the Babylonian myth which will be dealt with when we come to the next stage of our study. But that the Babylonian form of the myth was based on an earlier Sumerian version was not known until 1914, when the American scholar Arno Poebel published a fragment of a Sumerian tablet containing episodes of what was clearly the myth of the Flood. No further Sumerian tablets relating to the Flood have yet been discovered. The outlines of the Sumerian version of the Flood story are as follows. At the point where the fragment continues the story, a god appears to be declaring his intention of saving mankind from the destruction which the gods have decided to bring upon them. The reason for their decision is not given. Enki is the god who takes steps to save mankind from destruction. Apparently he instructs Ziusudra the pious king of Sippar to stand by a wall, through which he will reveal to Ziusudra the dire intention of the gods, and tell him what must be done to escape the coming flood. The part of the text which must have described the building of the boat is missing, but its existence is implied in the following passage which describes the Flood and Ziusudra’s escape: All the windstorms, exceedingly powerful, attacked as one, At the same time, the flood sweeps over the cult-centres. After, for seven days (and) seven nights, The flood had swept over the land, (And) the huge boat had been tossed about by the windstorms on the great waters, Utu came forth, who sheds light on heaven (and) earth. Ziusudra opened a window of the huge boat, The hero Utu brought his rays into the giant boat. Ziusudra, the king, Prostrated himself before Utu, The king kills an ox, slaughters a sheep. Then, after a break, the tablet describes the ultimate fate of Ziusudra: Ziusudra, the king, Prostrated himself before Anu (and) Enlil. Anu (and) Enlil cherished Ziusudra, Life like (that of) a god they give him, Breath eternal like (that of) a god they bring down for him. Then, Ziusudra the king, The preserver of the name of vegetation (and) of the seed of mankind, in the land of crossing, the land of Dilmun, the place where the sun rises, they caused to dwell. [4] It may be inferred from the Babylonian story of the Flood that the complete Sumerian version contained much fuller details about the cause of the flood and the building of the boat; but these may be left until we come to deal with the Akkadian mythology. The question whether the myth of the Flood, the third of our basic myths, can be classed with ritual myths, presents

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instead of becoming the light of the sky, Enlil devised a complicated scheme by which Ninlil became the mother of the three deities of the nether world as substitutes for Nanna, who was thus enabled to ascend to heaven. It is clear that this curious and hitherto unknown myth gives a clue to the transformation of the Tammuz-Ishtar myth, of which we have already spoken. We can see from the Tammuz liturgies that Enlil is a frequent title of Tammuz, and similarly that Ninlil is a frequent designation of Ishtar; so that the descent of Ishtar into the nether world, which, as we have seen, is unexplained in the earliest form of the Sumerian myth of manna’s descent into the nether world, finds an explanation in this myth of the birth of Nanna, the moon-god. In the Sumerian pantheon the moon-god, Nanna, or Sin, was the chief astral deity, and the sun-god, Utu, was regarded as the offspring of Nanna and his consort Ningal. In the later Hebrew cosmogony the position was reversed and the sun became the major luminary, while the moon became female, as in classical mythology. The Sumerians conceived of Nanna as journeying through the night sky in a quffah, the circular boat used in the navigation of the Euphrates, accompanied by the stars and planets, whose origin is not explained. After Enlil had separated heaven from earth, and the illumination of heaven had been provided in the forms of Nanna, Utu, and the stars and planets, the organization of the earthly part of the universe had to be undertaken, and various myths deal with the different elements of the terrestrial order. It should be observed that, somewhat illogically, the cities and temples of the gods are thought of as existing before the creation of man, which comes at the end of the various divine activities involved in creating the order of the universe. Enlil is conceived of as the ultimate source of vegetation, cattle, agricultural implements, and the arts of civilization, though he brings these into being indirectly by the creation of lesser gods who carry out his instructions. In order to provide cattle and grain for the earth, at the suggestion of Enki, the Babylonian Ea, the god of wisdom, Enlil creates two minor deities, Lahar, the cattle-god, and Ashman, the grain-goddess, to provide food and clothes for the gods. The myth describes the abundance which they create upon earth; but they drink wine and get drunk and begin to quarrel, neglecting their duties, so that the gods are unable to obtain what they need. In order to remedy this situation man is created. The following is Kramer’s translation of part of the myth of Lahar and Ashman: In those days, in the creation chamber of the gods, In their house Dulkug, Lahar and Ashnan were fashioned; The produce of Lahar and Ashnan, The Anunnaki of the Dulkug eat, but remain unsated; In their pure sheepfolds milk …. and good things, The Anunnaki of the Dulkug drink, remain unsated; For the sake of the good things in their pure sheepfolds, Man was given breath. In addition to myths relating to the provision of food and clothing, there are various myths dealing with other elements of civilization and the organization of the universe. A long poem, much of which is still obscure, describes the creation of the pickaxe by Enlil and the gift of this valuable implement to ‘the black-headed people’ to enable them to build their houses and

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cities. Another myth describes the activities of Enki in providing Sumer with the necessary elements of civilization. The myth describes how Enki, beginning with Sumer, journeys through different parts of the world, ‘fixing the destinies’, a Sumerian term meaning the creative activity of the gods in bringing order into the universe. First Enki visits Ur, then Meluhha, which might possibly signify Egypt, then the rivers Tigris and Euphrates which he fills with fishes, and then the Persian Gulf. Over each of these he appoints a god or goddess to take charge. A passage from Kramer’s translation of this interesting myth will illustrate the nature of Enki’s civilizing activities: [3] The plough and the yoke he (Enki) directed, The great prince Enki caused the ox to . . .; To the pure crops he roared, In the steadfast field he made grain grow; The lord, the jewel and ornament of the plain, The . . . farmer of Enlil, Enkimdu, him of the canals and ditches, Enki placed in their charge. The lord called to the steadfast field, he caused it to produce much grain, Enki made it bring forth its small and large beans . . . The . . . grains he heaped up for the granary, Enki added granary to granary, With Enlil he increases abundance in the land; Her whose head is . . . whose face is.. . The lady who . . . the might of the land, the steadfast support of the black-headed people, Ashnan, strength of all things, Enki placed in charge. Enki then goes on to place the brick-god, Kabta, in charge of the pick-axe and the brick- mould. He lays foundations and builds houses, and places them under the charge of Mushdamma, the ‘great builder of Enlil’. He fills the plain with vegetable and animal, life, and places Sumuqan, ‘king of the mountain’, in charge. Lastly, Enki builds stables and sheepfolds and places them under the shepherd-god Dumuzi. The last myth dealing with the organization of the universe to which we shall refer is concerned with the activities of the goddess manna, or Ishtar. We have already had occasion to refer to the expression ‘fixing the destinies’, and we shall see when we come to deal with Babylonian myths that an object called ‘the tablet of destinies’ plays an important part in several myths. The possession of it was one of the attributes of deity, and we hear of the tablets being stolen or taken by force on several occasions. The god who possessed them had the power of controlling the order of the universe. In the myth with which we are now dealing, Inanna wishes to confer the blessings of civilization upon her own city, Erech. In order to do this she must acquire the me, a Sumerian word which appears to denote the same power as that which is conferred by the possession of the Akkadian ‘tablets of destiny’. The me are in the hands of Enki, the god of wisdom. Accordingly, Inanna journeys to Eridu, where Enki dwells in his house of the Apsu, the sweet-water abyss. Enki receives his daughter Inanna hospitably and makes a great feast for her. When he gets merry with wine he promises her all kinds of gifts, including the me, or divine decrees which, in Kramer’s words, are ‘the basis of the culture pattern of Sumerian civilization’. The myth contains a list of over a

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Sumerians came. Moreover, the fact that the towering ‘ziqqurats’ were a feature of Sumerian temple architecture has been held to point in the same direction. Hence the original form of the myth may have arisen under conditions of life which were very different from the agricultural mode of life which the Sumerians were obliged to adopt when they settled in the delta. There is evidence to show that Semites and Sumerians were both occupying the delta for a considerable time before the Amorite invasion and the final conquest and absorption of the Sumerians by the Semites. We know that the Semites took over from the Sumerians their cuneiform script and much of their religion and mythology, and this may well be accepted as a further explanation of the changed character of the Tammuz-Ishtar myth as we find it in the Assyro-Babylonian period. We shall see later what changes the myth underwent as it passed into other countries. The Myth of Creation The second basic myth which we find in a Sumerian form is the wide-spread myth of Creation. It may be remarked here that we do not find the conception of creation ex nihilo in any of the ancient myths of Creation. For all of these, creation is the act of bringing order out of an original state of chaos. When we come to deal with the Assyro-Babylonian material, we shall see that the cosmogonic myth existed there in one main form, the well-known Enuma Elish, or Epic of Creation, as it is now generally styled. But there is nothing corresponding to this in the Sumerian material. Professor Kramer has shown that Sumerian cosmogony has to be pieced together from various myths of origin, and the following account is based on his researches. He is, however, careful to remind us that there are great gaps in our knowledge of Sumerian, and that many of the tablets upon which the myths have been preserved are broken and incomplete. Hence, in the present state of our knowledge of Sumerian it is impossible to give a completely coherent account of Sumerian mythology. For the sake of convenience the Sumerian myths of Creation may be arranged under three heads: the origin of the universe, the organization of the universe, and the creation of man. The Origin of the Universe. In a tablet which contains a list of the Sumerian gods, the goddess Nammu, whose name is written with the ideogram for ’sea’, is described as ‘the mother who gave birth to heaven and earth’. From other myths it appears that heaven and earth were originally a mountain whose base was the earth and whose summit was heaven. Heaven was personified as the god An, and earth as the goddess Ki, and from their union was begotten the air-god Enlil, who then separated heaven from earth and brought the universe into being in the form of heaven and earth separated by air. Sumerian mythology gave no explanation of the origin of the primeval sea. The Organization of the Universe. This aspect of the creation motif is dealt with in a number of myths which describe how the heavenly bodies and all the various elements of Sumerian civilization came into being. The first of these myths is concerned with the birth of the moon-god, Nanna, or Sin. The details are far from clear, and further knowledge may modify them; but the outline of the myth seems to be that Enlil, the high god of the Sumerian pantheon, whose shrine was at Nippur, was enamoured of the goddess Ninlil and raped her as she was sailing on the stream Nunbirdu. For this high-handed act Enlil was banished to the underworld, but Ninlil, great with child, refused to be left behind, and insisted on following Enlil to the nether world. As this would have involved the birth of Ninlil’s child Nanna, the moon-god, in the dark nether world

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